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@inletkeeper.org Last modified 01 December 1999

VOLUNTEER

TRAINING MANUAL

APPROVALS:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ook Inlet Keeper thanks the many people and organizations that helped make the Keeper's environmental monitoring program a reality. Special thanks to the Environmental Protection Agency and the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation for their support in establishing the Keeper's Citizens Environmental Monitoring Program. The Keeper also recognizes the Members of its Technical Advisory Committee and its Citizen Advisory Panel for their efforts in helping shape and refine the Keeper's monitoring program. And of course we cannot forget the most important resource of all - our volunteer monitors - who have endured cold winds and waters to help us understand the complexities of Cook Inlet.

The Keeper adapted much of the information in this manual from the Citizen Water Quality Monitoring Manual of Friends of Casco Bay (Maine), and the Volunteer Environmental Monitoring Manual of Texas Watch. Keeper offers special thanks to the staff of Texas Watch and to Casco Baykeeper Joe Payne and his able staff. Information from this manual can be used freely if properly credited. Copies of this manual are available at $10.00 each, including shipping and handling, by contacting:

e-mail: keeper@inletkeeper.org

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION.………………………………………………………………….1
2. ABOUT COOK INLET KEEPER...……………………………………………...1
3. WHY DO WE MONITOR WATER QUALITY?…………….………….………2

1. The Need for Monitoring…………………………………………………….2
2. The Watershed Concept……………………………………………………..3

4. SAFETY & ACCESS ISSUES……………………………………………………4

1. Prepare for the Elements……………………………………………………..4
2. Protect Yourself and Your Equipment……….…………………...…………5
3. Accessing the Sampling Station……………………………..………………6
4. At the Monitoring Station……………………………………………………7

4. MONITORING OVERVIEW…………………………………………….………7

1. Some Types of Water Quality Monitoring…….…………………………….7
2. Water Quality Test Methods…………………………………………………7
3. Sampling Schedule…………………………………………………………..8
4. Keeper Test Parameters and Why……………………………………………9
5. Surface Water Quality Monitoring Kits……………………………………..27
6. Monitor Data Sheets…………………………………………………………28

4. MONITORING PROCEDURES…………………………………………………28

1. Field Procedure Checklist……………………………………………………28
2. When You Get Home………………………………………………………..29
3. Field Observations…………………………………………………………..30
4. Collecting the Water Sample………………………………………………..32
5. Testing Procedures…………………………………………………………..32
6. Sample Custody……………………………………………………………..46
7. Completing & Submitting Data Sheets……………………………………...47

4. EQUIPMENT CARE & WASTE DISPOSAL……………………..…………….48

1. Before Sampling Begins…………………………………………………….48
2. When You’re Done Testing…………………………………………………48

4. DATA MANAGEMENT & REPORTING………………………………………49

1. Verifying Accuracy………………………………………………………….49
2. Data Analysis & Reporting………………………………………………….50
3. What It All Means……………………………………………………………50

4. QUALITY CONTROL……………………………………………..……………...51

 

5. APPENDICES

1. Glossary of Terms
2. Monitoring Policy Statement
3. References & Further Reading
4. List of TAC & CAP Members
5. Liability Release Form
6. Materials Safety Data Sheets
7. Property Access Form
8. Beaufort Scale
9. Monitor Data Sheets
10. Hydrometer Conversion Chart
11. Tidal Stage Guide
12. Odor Identification Chart
13. Sample Custody Form
14. Pollution Response System

I. INTRODUCTION

he purpose of this Manual is to provide Cook Inlet Keeper volunteers with the information needed to monitor water quality in the Cook Inlet watershed. As human activities in the region continue to expand, it is increasingly important for us to understand the effects of such activities on Cook Inlet's spectacular resources. This Manual will help achieve that goal by giving citizens the tools they need to sample and test water quality.

This Manual provides specific step by step instructions for all monitoring procedures currently included in Keeper’s Citizens’ Environmental Monitoring Program (CEMP). It outlines the Keeper monitoring program, and describes the importance of water quality monitoring in general. Safety and access issues are addressed as well as basic water quality monitoring strategies. The Appendices include a statement of our monitoring policy, a glossary of terms, a list of references for those who may want to learn more and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for some of the reagents used, plus a variety of charts and tables to assist you in collecting data. Appendix N includes information on how to report pollution and habitat degradation.

The material in this manual was developed specifically for use by the Cook Inlet Keeper Citizens Environmental Monitoring Program. The Monitoring Coordinator for this program is Steve Hackett. He can be reached at:

We welcome your comments, suggestions and participation, and we thank everyone who has volunteered their time, expertise and support. In these times of shrinking federal and state budgets, volunteer monitoring plays an increasingly important role in collecting the data needed to make intelligent decisions about the future of Cook Inlet. The data we collect can be used by federal and state agencies, local governments, schools and businesses. Everyone involved in the Keeper's Citizens Environmental Monitoring Program is making a real contribution toward protecting the Cook Inlet watershed and its spectacular resources.

II. ABOUT COOK INLET KEEPER

ook Inlet Keeper is a 501(3)(c) non-profit, member-based organization dedicated to protecting the Cook Inlet watershed and the life it sustains. Keeper received start-up funding in fall 1995 from the settlement of a Clean Water Act lawsuit, and proceeded to implement the first comprehensive, volunteer monitoring program in Alaska.

To assist with developing and refining its Citizens Environmental Monitoring Program, Keeper convened a Technical Advisory Committee (TAC), comprised of water quality experts from across Alaska and beyond. To translate the recommendations of the TAC into workable implementation strategies, the Keeper convened a Citizens Advisory Panel (CAP), comprised of residents of the Lower Kenai Peninsula concerned about water quality. See Appendix D for lists of TAC and CAP members. Together, the TAC and the CAP have provided Keeper with invaluable input on shaping and implementing its monitoring program.

Keeper's initial efforts to implement volunteer monitoring in Cook Inlet have focused on surface water monitoring in Kachemak Bay. After refining this pilot program, Keeper will expand its efforts to include water column, sediment and bioassessment testing throughout the entire 39,000 square mile Cook Inlet watershed, to gain a more complete picture of the "health" of this remarkable ecosystem.

In addition to water quality monitoring, Keeper engages in a variety of education, computer mapping, and advocacy activities designed to protect Cook Inlet. For more information, visit Keeper’s homepage at: www.xyz.net/~keeper, stop by the Keeper office in Homer's Lakeside Mall or contact us at: ph: (907) 235-4068; fx: (907) 235-4069; e-mail: keeper@inletkeeper.org.

A. The Need for Monitoring

The federal Clean Water Act of 1972 states that "it is the national goal that the discharge of pollutants into the navigable waters be eliminated by 1985." Despite substantial progress in the past three decades, we clearly have yet to meet this important goal. In Cook Inlet, industries, municipalities and individuals continue to discharge great quantities of pollution each year. Some of these pollutants can be highly toxic to people and marine life, while other pollutants are less immediately harmful but nonetheless can cause long term damage to the sensitive resources of Cook Inlet.

The single largest factor limiting our ability to make intelligent policy decisions on issues affecting Cook Inlet water quality is that we do not have sufficient information (i.e. hard data). Although numerous organizations – including state and federal agencies, citizens groups, universities and private industry – have conducted a variety of tests and studies in Cook Inlet, there remains a significant gap in our understanding of water quality in this watershed. The reason for this gap is that no one to date has implemented a comprehensive, continuous water quality monitoring program.

Alaska’s 1996 Water Quality Assessment (305(b) Report), which is submitted every two years to Congress, states:

are presumed to be in relatively pristine condition…" (emphasis added).

This sweeping presumption is based partly on the fact that Alaska traditionally has witnessed small populations of people and industry relative to its expansive size. For much of Alaska’s history, this presumption may not have been far off base. But in recent years, Alaska in general, and Cook Inlet in particular, has experienced a dramatic growth in population and its associated pressures on water quality and natural resources. The Cook Inlet watershed is currently home to nearly 2/3 of Alaska’s human population, and population in the area increased from just over 14,000 in 1950 to over 400,000 at present. We need only look at any other water body in the Lower 48 to know that increasing populations can correlate closely with water quality degradation. Yet despite the remarkable population increases in the Cook Inlet watershed, there has been no comprehensive ongoing program to gather the information needed to understand the human impacts on the region’s spectacular resources.

Due, in part, to continuing budget cuts, the federal and state agencies charged with monitoring and protecting water quality have found it increasingly difficult to fulfill their mandates. More and more agencies have come to value the contributions of citizen based programs. That is why your efforts as volunteer monitors are so important. We are beginning to collect the information needed to chart an intelligent and sustainable course for the future of Cook Inlet. Gathering this data will not occur overnight; rather, it will take several years to accumulate enough information to be able to identify the trends that will help us shape management decisions. But the effort will be worthwhile, because we have the opportunity to maintain the quality of life which is so important to those who live and visit here.

B. The Watershed Concept

Watershed-based water quality management is just taking hold in Alaska. Cook Inlet resource managers and citizen groups are quickly moving toward innovative ways to look at water quality policy. In short, watershed-based directives take a step back from looking at pollution sources and impacts in immediately local areas, and strive instead to look at the complex ecological, chemical and physical interactions of water quality dynamics from a broader, more holistic perspective. This means we must consider the larger geographic area which drains potentially polluting waters into Cook Inlet. For example, a watershed perspective will consider not only the industrial discharge which goes directly into Cook Inlet, but also the septic tanks and other potential pollution sources in the uplands of the Susitna Valley.

IV. SAFETY & ACCESS ISSUES

f paramount importance to the Keeper monitoring program is to ensure the safety of its volunteers. Assuring reasonable and legal access to sampling stations is another important concern. Please read this section carefully and make sure you understand all the safeguards and practices for protecting yourself and others during monitoring activities. See Appendix E for the Keeper's mandatory liability release form.

A. Prepare for the Elements

Although there are hundreds of volunteer monitoring programs across the country, few if any, must contend with the severe weather and rough water that make Cook Inlet unique. As a result, CEMP volunteers must be prepared for cold, dark and wet conditions during the winter months, and wind, rain and extended sun during the summer months. Regardless of the season, water temperatures around Cook Inlet rarely exceed 50° F, making it necessary to always take care around the sampling station. Here are a few rules which all volunteers must follow:

• ALWAYS LEAVE WORD with a reliable source as to where and when you will be sampling.

• ALWAYS SAMPLE WITH A QUALIFIED PARTNER. Volunteers are assigned to monitoring teams and should strive to sample in groups of two or more. You will be given the names and phone numbers of each member of your team as well a list of alternate monitors. If your teammates are not available for a particular sampling event they are responsible for helping you locate a qualified alternate. If no trained alternate is available, please contact the Monitoring Coordinator for assistance.

B. Protect Yourself and Your Equipment

The Keeper's water quality monitoring kits include a number of chemical reagents which can be harmful if improperly handled or disposed. Please follow these important rules when sampling and testing:

• Read all instructions to re-familiarize yourself with the test procedures before you begin, and note all precautions.

• In the event of a chemical accident or suspected poisoning, immediately contact the Poison Information Center (1-800-478-3193) and be prepared to provide the name and identification number of the relevant chemical. This information is located on the reagent container.

3. Accessing the Sampling Station

1. Entering Private Property

2. Safe & Sound Site Access

• If driving, park your vehicle off roads and out of the way of traffic. Always watch for traffic.

• Take appropriate precautions around domestic and wild animals.

4. At the Monitoring Station

Prior to sampling, monitors should check their kits and reagents to ensure they have all the chemicals and equipment needed to monitor the full spectrum of parameters. When you arrive at the sampling station, try to find a place to set out your equipment and chemicals where they will not be sitting in strong, direct sunlight. On windy days, beware of small containers being blown into the water. And of course, follow all the safety and access rules outlined in this section.

V. MONITORING OVERVIEW

his section provides a general overview of the tests and procedures you will use to obtain accurate and useful data, and discusses how these tests will help us better understand the health of the Cook Inlet watershed.

1. Some Types of Water Quality Monitoring

1. Baseline Monitoring

Baseline monitoring involves the collection of various types of data to gain an understanding of "normal" conditions in a particular waterbody. Without such information, we are unable to know what changes human and other impacts are having on our aquatic systems. For example, during the Exxon Valdez disaster, biologists were poorly equipped when asked about the ecological impact of the spill. Although they knew that birds and marine mammals were dying, they did not have enough information to make knowledgeable comparisons between the pre- and post-spill environments. This body of knowledge is critical if we hope to understand the complex effects of human activities on ecological health.

2. Compliance and Enforcement Monitoring

Compliance and enforcement monitoring, as the name suggests, tests whether a certain discharge or effluent is meeting limits imposed by law. For example, under the Clean Water Act’s National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), anyone who discharges a pollutant into the waters of the United States must obtain an NPDES permit and monitor the discharge to ensure compliance with that permit. In an enforcement scenario, an agency or other organization may take samples to demonstrate that a violation of a permit or standard has occurred.

2. Water Quality Test Methods

Below are descriptions of general water quality testing methods, to help clarify how each one works in Keeper's monitoring program. Always follow the specific instructions provided in Section VI of this manual.

1. Titrimetric

2. Colorimetric

3. Electronic Meters

3. Sampling Schedule

Samples are to be taken on the second and last Sundays of each month during the months of May, June, July and August and on the last Sunday of each month during the remainder of the year (i.e. September through April) for a total of 16 times per year. If monitoring cannot be done on a designated Sunday because of weather, illness, vacations or for other reasons, it should be scheduled during the two days just before or just after the designated date (i.e. Friday through Tuesday). Please do not complete part of a session one day and finish it up the next. If you need to break off a session (due to weather, injury, etc.), all procedures should be repeated on the next attempt. We are trying to get a data "snapshot" of the conditions at your site at a particular date and time.

To the extent possible, sampling is to be conducted at 2:00 PM. When this is not possible sampling should be done between the hours of 11:00 AM and 5:00 PM. Some of the parameters to be measured depend on the amount of sunlight available and therefore vary throughout the day - for example, temperature in shallow areas or dissolved oxygen. The shorter days of the winter months pose particular challenges here. Essentially, we have specified a "sampling window" in order to collect comparable data.

The quality of the data collected by our program depends on regular and consistent monitoring. If you anticipate missing an event (for example, if you are going on vacation), it is your responsibility to make arrangements with a trained alternate. If the alternate is not on your monitoring team, make sure they know the exact location of the site. If no trained alternate is available, or in an emergency, please contact the Monitoring Coordinator at (907) 235-4068. It is mandatory that all monitoring be conducted by fully trained personnel. Please do not try to give a novice a quickie training session and then send them out on their own. (But feel free to bring them to our next "official" training session - we are always looking for new recruits!)

4. Keeper Test Parameters and Why

This section reviews the types of water quality data and other information to be collected and discusses why each is important to understanding the "health" of the Cook Inlet Watershed.

FIELD OBSERVATIONS

In addition to the water quality parameters you will monitor, there is other important information which will help draw a more complete picture of the environmental health of your sampling site and the Cook Inlet Watershed as a whole. Gathering this information involves using your senses to observe conditions at your site.

Recording basic observations about your site will put the data you collect into context. You will be producing a record of conditions over time, through changes in tide, weather and season as well as varying human and wildlife activity.

Air Temperature

Air temperature is a standard measurement taken by most environmental monitoring programs. Recording air temperatures helps to create a complete picture of conditions at the sampling site at the time of monitoring and to document climatic conditions over an extended period.

Wind & Weather

Weather conditions (whether raining or sunny, windy or calm) can have an impact on physical, chemical and biological activity in the water. Wind speed and direction can be an indication of the source of certain air borne pollutants. It can also affect turbidity, dissolved oxygen and surface water temperature. In the Keeper program you will reference the Beaufort Scale to estimate wind speed (see Appendix H).

Rainfall can affect the rate of run-off pollution from land as well as the temperature, pH and turbidity of surface water. Volunteers record current weather conditions and the number of consecutive days prior to sampling that have had similar weather. Monitors also record the type and amount of precipitation at each site for the past 24 hours. You can obtain a rain gauge from the Monitoring Coordinator or, if you live in the same watershed as your site, you may want to find out if a neighbor is already tracking rainfall and is willing to share the information.

Water Surface & Tidal Conditions

Whether calm, rippled, or with waves and white caps, surface water conditions indicate how much mixing is occurring in the top layer of the water body. When the surface is placid, very little wind-induced mixing occurs. Waves whipped up by wind, however, indicate substantial mixing and the introduction of oxygen to the water. If you are sampling in a stream segment where wind does not have a major impact on surface water conditions, it is still important to note whether your site is located in or near rapids, riffle, smooth flowing water, or a calm eddy. This information may assist in interpreting dissolved oxygen data.

The tidal stage can also have a significant impact on some of the parameters you will be testing. Cook Inlet experiences the second largest tidal shifts in the world (the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia is first). As the tide comes in, salinity will commonly increase at estuarine sampling sites and water temperature is likely to change, which will in turn affect dissolved oxygen levels. Recording the stage of the tidal cycle at the time of sampling helps account for some of these changes. The Monitor Data Sheet (Appendix I) includes a worksheet space for determining tidal stage based on the tide book provided in your kit and the tidal stage guide in Appendix K.

Comments & Observations

Despite being the least quantitative of the parameters, visual assessment of the monitoring site can provide valuable information and assist in interpretation of other physical, chemical and biological data. Visual assessment is simply observing the environmental conditions at the site and recording those that are noteworthy.

Visual information can also provide an account of events or conditions that may help explain the monitoring data collected. For example, if dead fish are floating on the water surface, they may signal a sudden drop in dissolved oxygen levels, the influx of some toxic substance, or a disease or infestation of the fish.

In addition to visual assessment you will also use your ears and your nose to monitor your site. Listen for birds and other wildlife as well as sounds of human activity such as engines. Check for unusual odors. Though quite subjective, water odor can reveal water quality problems that may not be visually apparent. Industrial and municipal effluents, rotting organic matter, and bacteria can all produce distinctive odors. Raw sewage, for example, has an unmistakable aroma.

Photos or Sketches

A picture should be taken prior to the first round of sampling at each site. Additionally, it is a good practice to take routine pictures of your site at least four times a year, in order to get a sense of its seasonal and other variations over time. If your site is subjected to either long term or sudden environmental impact your photos will help document the effects of these changes.

Regardless of your level of artistic ability, a rough sketch of your site can be a valuable tool for physically locating your observations during each sampling event.

Please do not underestimate the importance of this observational data; although it is less "hard" than the numbers and figures you will measure in your water testing, it nonetheless provides an important window into the ecology of your sampling area.

WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Keeper’s Citizens’ Environmental Monitoring Program includes testing for a wide range of water quality indicators. Selection of the parameters to be tested was based on a number of factors including how the collected data would contribute to understanding of water quality and overall watershed "health", the ease with which tests could be performed and the long term affordability of monitoring equipment and supplies.

Apparent Color

Apparent color of water results from dissolved substances and suspended matter, and provides general but useful information about the water's source and content. Metal ions, plankton, algae, pollution and other natural and human-induced materials may all produce color in water. Depending on the materials in it, water absorbs certain wavelengths of light, and reflects others. The reflected wavelengths are the ones we observe when determining apparent color.

Transparent water with a low accumulation of dissolved materials appears blue and indicates low productivity. Dissolved organic matter, such as humus, peat or decaying plant matter, can produce a yellow or brown color. Some algae or dinoflagellates produce reddish or deep yellow waters. Water rich in phytoplankton and other algae usually appears green. Soil runoff produces a variety of yellow, red, brown and gray.

Uniform color scales are used in determining apparent color to ensure that standardized color information can be shared and compared between researchers. Keeper has selected the Borger Color System, (BCS) which was originally devised to measure the color of flies for fishermen, but which is well-suited for water testing too.

Turbidity (Clarity)

Turbidity, or water clarity, is a measurement that pulls together many important features of an aquatic system. Turbidity is caused by suspended solid matter which scatters light passing through the water. Any material mixed and suspended in water will reduce its clarity and make the water turbid (i.e. muddy and cloudy). Such materials can come from many sources. In early spring, the water may become more turbid as silt is carried into the estuary with the spring thaw and run-off. At any time of year, silt-laden surface water can flow into the estuary from tributaries and storm drains during periods of heavy rain and associated runoff. In Cook Inlet, glacial silts are also a major cause of turbidity. In late spring through early fall, turbidity may be caused by plankton as they grow and multiply rapidly in warm, sunlit, nutrient-rich water.

In shallow areas, wind-generated waves and boat wakes can stir up sediments from the bottom. As waves generated by wind and passing boats break on the shore, they can also increase the turbidity. Upstream construction activities, land clearing, or any other activity which erodes the soil, may release sediment to tributaries of Cook Inlet and increase turbidity.

Turbidity affects fish and aquatic life in many ways:

• High turbidity levels interfere with the penetration of sunlight. Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) needs light for photosynthesis. If suspended particles block out light, lower rates of photosynthesis produce less oxygen. SAV, like the eelgrasses and kelp in many areas of Cook Inlet, provide important habitat for a diverse community of marine life. These are critical areas where many species including shellfish, waterfowl, and fish can find essential food and shelter. If light levels get too low, photosynthesis can stop all together and the vegetation will begin to die off.

• Large amounts of suspended matter can clog the gills of some species of fish, reducing oxygen transfer.

• Excessive amounts of suspended matter clog the feeding apparatus of bottom-dwelling animals (e.g. crabs, anemones or clams) and may even smother them completely.

• Suspended particles may provide a place for harmful bacteria and microorganisms to settle and grow. The particles can also carry pesticides, toxic metals and excess nutrients down tributaries or throughout the dynamic Cook Inlet estuary. Suspended particles near the water surface absorb additional heat from sunlight and can raise the surface water temperature.

There are several ways to test turbidity. One turbidity test involves an electronic instrument called a nephelometer, which uses scattered light to measure turbidity in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTUs). Another involves the use of a Secchi Disk - a small (20 centimeters in diameter) disk divided into black and white quadrants which is lowered into a waterbody. The level where the disk disappears is recorded, and the measurement correlates to turbidity.

Keeper has elected to use the Secchi Disk method at sites where water depth is three meters (approximately 10 feet) or greater. In shallower areas Keeper monitors perform a comparative turbidity test, which uses a chemical reagent in a tube to measure turbidity in Jackson Turbidity Units (JTUs). (Note: JTUs correlate with NTUs).

Water Temperature

While temperature may be one of the easiest measurements to perform, it is also one of the most important parameters we test because it dramatically affects the rates of chemical and biological reactions within the water. Some of the most common biological, physical and chemical processes that are temperature dependent are listed below.

• The rates of photosynthesis and plant growth both increase in warmer water. Therefore, it is important to understand the connection between the processes of photosynthesis and respiration. In photosynthesis, plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to create the organic molecules they need to grow. In the process, the plants release oxygen. Respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis; when no light is available, plants respire (i.e. they take in oxygen and break down the stored organic molecules to get energy), releasing carbon dioxide. Thus, temperature changes can dramatically affect plant growth and the amount of oxygen in the water.

• An increase in plant growth and photosynthesis means that more oxygen is produced, but it also means that more oxygen is consumed through plant respiration. The balance between photosynthesis and respiration depends on the availability of sunlight. Especially in summer, when the days are longer, there is a net production of oxygen. Another factor is that when the plants die, oxygen is consumed in the process of bacterial decay.

• Individual organisms living in the water are healthiest when temperatures stay within their range of tolerance. The metabolic rates of organisms increase in warmer water and in many organisms, increased metabolism means increased oxygen demand. Even if there is enough dissolved oxygen to supply the greater demand, under extreme high or low temperature conditions marine organisms become stressed and are more vulnerable to toxic chemicals, diseases, and parasites. The requirements of any one organism change as it goes through different stages of life. For example, fish larvae and eggs usually have a narrower tolerance range than adult fish; conditions that would have been tolerable for the adults may kill off the larvae before they have a chance to reach adulthood

• Temperature affects the distribution of various types of organisms because different organisms have different temperature requirements and different ways of responding to changes in temperature. Motile organisms - those capable of moving on their own, such as fish - may be able to escape unfavorable temperature conditions by migrating elsewhere. Sessile (i.e. immobile) organisms such as algae and slow-moving organisms such as anemones remain to be weakened or even to die.

• Gases such as oxygen are more soluble in cool water than in warm water. In other words, cool water can hold more dissolved oxygen. Solids, on the other hand, are usually more soluble in warm water. For example, heavy metal compounds deposited in sediments at cooler temperatures can be released at warmer temperatures. First, the compounds already existing in the sediments become more soluble; second, as the concentration of oxygen decreases, the metals react chemically to form new and even more soluble compounds. Once the metals are released from the sediments into the water, they can be taken up by marine life.

• The rates of chemical reactions in fresh and brackish water generally increase with increasing temperature.
• The density of seawater decreases with increasing temperature. This variation of density with temperature affects inversions, mixing, and current movements.

• Because significant portions of Cook Inlet are naturally shallow, the capacity of these parts of the estuary to store heat for long time periods is relatively small. As a result, water temperatures fluctuate considerably over time and by location. In shallow areas, tides, currents, and wind tend to minimize temperature differences between surface and subsurface water.

• In deeper areas, the temperatures of surface and subsurface water often differ. Generally, deeper water is colder and therefore denser. The vertical temperature profile of the water column follows a fairly predictable annual cycle. In spring and summer months, the surface waters are warmed by the sun; the bottom waters remain much cooler. In the fall, the sun gets lower in the sky, the days get shorter, and the air gets cooler. The surface waters also cool, increasing in density. When the surface water is colder and denser than the bottom water, it begins to sink, and vertical mixing occurs. Wind speeds up the process. This annual turnover creates an upwelling of nutrients and minerals from the bottom that are newly available to the phytoplankton and other inhabitants of the surface waters. During the remaining winter, the water temperature becomes nearly constant from surface to bottom. Then, in early spring, the radiation of the sun again warms the surface waters. The top layer warms and the bottom remains cool, until the next fall when turnover and upwelling occur again.

Temperature is measured using a familiar instrument: a thermometer. Most liquids expand with increasing temperature. A thermometer consists of a reservoir of a known liquid in the bulb (in our case, alcohol mixed with dye) and a narrow-bore tube into which the liquid expands. Measuring the height to which the liquid has expanded in the tube gives the temperature.

Water temperatures will be reported in degrees Celsius, the standard temperature unit for scientific data. On the Celsius scale, fresh water boils at 100°C and freezes at 0°C. Seawater, on the other hand, freezes at a somewhat lower temperature depending on its salinity. Because Americans still frequently rely on the Fahrenheit scale (where freshwater boils at 212°F and freezes at 32°F), it may help you to use the following formula to convert between the two scales:

To convert from °F to °C:

°C = (°F - 32) x (5/9) or °C = (°F - 32) ÷ 1.8

To convert from °C to °F:

°F = [(9/5) x °C] + 32 or °F = (1.8 x °C) + 32

pH

pH is the measure of how acidic or basic a solution is. Because a variety of chemical and biological processes depend on certain pH values, pH measurements provide important information about the state of water quality. As water travels through the watershed, a number of factors may affect its pH:

• Leaching of soil and rock outcrops, especially during periods of heavy rain or snowmelt.

• Human-generated wastes (e.g. industrial discharges, sewer overflows, lawn runoff).

• Aerosols, dusts and gases picked up from the air.

• Photosynthesis by aquatic plants, which consumes carbon dioxide and can raise the pH of surrounding water.

The pH of the fresh water flowing into Cook Inlet depends on where the water has been and what it is carrying. Once water reaches Cook Inlet, local variations tend to be homogenized, partly by the motion of currents and tides, but also due to the strong buffering of seawater. Local pH values can increase during intense phytoplankton blooms, as the phytoplankton consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.

The resistance of water to changes in pH is critical to aquatic life because it determines the range of pH that organisms have to adapt to in order to survive. Generally, the ability of aquatic organisms to complete a life cycle greatly diminishes as pH becomes more than 9.0 or less than 5.0. However, the ideal range for aquatic life in general - including both fresh water and salt water species - falls between 6.5 and 8.2. Marine organisms in the open ocean are usually exposed to an even narrower pH range of 8.1 to 8.3. When water with a low pH value comes in contact with certain chemicals and metals, the acidity of the water may cause these substances to become more soluble or more toxic than normal, increasing the effects of the pollutant load on Cook Inlet. Fish that can stand a slightly acidic pH may die at a more neutral pH if low concentrations of iron, aluminum, lead, or mercury are present. Phytoplankton blooms can play an interesting role here; as a bloom dies off, chunks of it sink to the bottom and decompose. The decomposition process produces organic acids which can lower the pH and react with the sediments to release metals and other toxins into the water.

Pure distilled water has a pH of 7.0 and is said to be neutral. The pH values of natural waters are controlled by the salts and gases dissolved in them. Seawater typically has a pH of 8.1 to 8.3. Because its pH is greater than 7.0, it is said to be basic or alkaline (the two terms are synonymous). The pH of seawater is fairly stable because it is highly buffered - that is, the water contains pairs of ions which react to damp down changes in pH.

The strong buffering and constant motion of seawater tend to minimize variations in pH. Short-lived, local variations may be caused by intense phytoplankton blooms, or at locations where industrial discharges and sewer outflows enter the ocean, or where there are large influxes of fresh water. Natural fresh water typically has a lower pH than seawater. Rain water and snow melt usually has a pH of 5.6 to 6.0. Because its pH is less than 7.0, even unpolluted rain water is said to be acidic. So-called "acid rain" has an even lower pH due to atmospheric pollutants.

pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions; the higher the concentration, the lower the pH. In any given aqueous solution, a certain proportion of water molecules dissociate to form hydrogen (H⁺) and hydroxyl (OH¯) ions:

H₂O H⁺ + OH¯

In neutral solutions (pH = 7.0), the concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions are equal. Acidic solutions (pH < 7.0) contain more hydrogen than hydroxyl ions. Basic or alkaline solutions (pH > 7.0) contain more hydroxyl than hydrogen ions.

One of the easiest ways to measure pH is to use an indicator solution. Most indicators are organic molecules which have a hydrogen ion they can easily gain or lose and which happen to change color when this occurs (making the reaction easy to observe). Keeper has selected a "wide range" indicator, which can measure pH throughout most of the pH range.

Salinity

Salinity is an important factor affecting the physical and chemical make-up of Cook Inlet waters. It is defined as the concentration of dissolved salts in the water, usually expressed in parts of salt per thousand parts of water (ppt). Seawater averages 35ppt (3.5% by weight) in the open ocean and 27 to 33 ppt (2.7% to 3.3% by weight) in most coastal waters. Fresh water usually contains few salts (drinking water usually has a salinity of less than 0.5ppt). A liter of Cook Inlet water typically contains 28 to 34 grams of dissolved salts. In other words, a quart would contain about an ounce of salts.

The surface salinity levels within Cook Inlet, especially near the coast, vary with many factors, including the tides and the volume of fresh water flowing into the Inlet. Salinity tends to decrease in the spring when heavy rainfall, the release of groundwater, and melting snow combine to greatly increase the amount of fresh water flowing in. Some decreases in salinity may be attributed to human activities which reduce the water-holding capacity of the land (such as paving or removal of vegetation) or directly accelerate fresh water discharge (such as storm drains and sewers). On the other hand, excessive withdrawals of water from the fresh water portion of a tributary (for agricultural use, drinking water, etc.) can elevate salinity near the mouth of this tributary.

Salinity levels also vary vertically from top to bottom. In general, salinity increases with depth. The fresh water coming down river is less dense than the heavier seawater, so the entering fresh water tends to float on top of the seawater and may not mix immediately. The volume of entering fresh water is also the greatest closest to land. The net result is a wedge of lighter fresh water lying over the heavier seawater, with poorly defined edges that are continually mixed by wind, waves, and tides. In shallow waters, the mixing of top and bottom layers can obscure this "wedge" or "lens"completely.

Perhaps the most important aspect of the estuary's salinity gradient is its effect on the distribution and well-being of the biological population that inhabits the Inlet. Some species of fish, such as salmon, require the fresh water portion of the estuary to spawn, but live the rest of their lives in the marine portion. Some organisms are extremely tolerant of the changes in salinity and are found everywhere from the open sea to waters with only the slightest tinge of salt. Sessile (immobile) bottom-dwellers such as butter clams are tolerant of salinity variations, but salinity does affect their growth and spawning.

The solubility of heavy metals also increases with increasing salinity. In summer, higher temperatures can combine with higher salinity and lower dissolved oxygen levels to create conditions where heavy metals previously deposited in the sediments can be more readily released into the water. This is also the season when bottom-dwelling and burrowing organisms are at their most active in turning over sediments and exposing them to react with the water.

There are many ways to measure salinity. Most depend on measuring some other property which is directly related to salinity. In the Keeper program, we measure the specific gravity of water using a hydrometer and convert the specific gravity readings to salinity. The specific gravity of a substance is its density divided by the density of pure water at 4°C - easy enough to do, since the density of pure water at 4°C is 1 gram per milliliter. A hydrometer placed in a liquid will always displace its own weight of liquid, so the denser the liquid is, the less volume of liquid will be displaced and the higher the hydrometer will float. Measuring the point at which the hydrometer stem breaks the surface of the liquid gives the liquid's specific gravity.

The density of water changes with temperature. Pure water reaches its maximum density at 4°C. At temperatures above 4°C, the density of pure water decreases with increasing temperature. As salts are dissolved in water, the temperature at which it reaches its maximum density decreases from 4°C and approaches the freezing point. At 25ppt salinity water reaches its maximum density at its freezing point. For solutions with salinity above 25ppt, such as seawater (typically 35ppt), density always decreases with increasing temperature even when temperatures are below the freezing point.

Because of the dependence of specific gravity on temperature, a sample's temperature has to be measured at the same time as its specific gravity. A table can then be used to a) convert these measurements to the specific gravity the sample would have at a standard temperature of 15°C and b) convert these standardized specific gravities to salinities; the higher the specific gravity, the higher the salinity (see Appendix J for conversion table).

Hanna Meter

The Hanna meter is an electronic meter which measures the parameters temperature, pH, conductivity and oxidation-reduction potential. Although temperature and pH measurements duplicate those of previous tests, the meter provides an important check on data accuracy. By also recording conductivity and oxidation-reduction potential readings, the Hanna meter provides additional insight into water quality.

The Hanna meter relies on its sensitive electrodes housed in the meter's black base compartment. These electrodes are fragile and should not be handled. Always remember to rinse the electrodes with distilled/dionized water prior to and after testing.

Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is one of the most important indicators of water quality for aquatic life. It is essential for the basic metabolic processes of animals and plants inhabiting our coastal waters. Dissolved oxygen is measured in milligrams per liter (mg/l) which equates to parts per million (ppm). When oxygen levels fall below about 3 to 5mg/l, fish and many other marine organisms are stressed and some cannot survive. Dissolved oxygen is a particularly sensitive constituent because other chemicals present in the water, certain biological processes, and physical factors such as temperature and water clarity exert a major influence on its availability throughout the year.

The maximum amount of oxygen water can hold depends a great deal on its temperature and salinity. A DO test (using a meter or chemical kit) tells you how much oxygen is dissolved in the water, but it does not tell you how much oxygen the water is capable of holding at the temperature and salinity at which it was tested. Warmer water holds less dissolved oxygen; as water approaches its boiling point, it can hold almost no oxygen. Dissolved oxygen also decreases with increasing salinity. When water holds all the dissolved oxygen that it can at a given temperature and salinity, it is said to be 100 percent saturated with oxygen. If water holds only half that amount of DO at the same temperature and salinity, it is said to be 50 percent saturated. The table below shows this relationship for various temperatures and salinities.

Potential dissolved oxygen levels in milligrams per liter (mg/l) at sea level

Consider some of the more shallow areas in Kachemak Bay on a hot August day. Except for in glacial streams, stream levels are relatively low at that time of year, so less fresh water is flowing into the Bay and the salinity is relatively high. The average water temperature in the Bay is also relatively high (by Alaska standards) and it gets higher locally as the tide comes in over a clam flat or beach that has been baking in the sun. Both the higher salinity and the higher temperature lower the water's ability to hold oxygen. Any events that increase the oxygen demand - e.g. a salmon run, or an influx of nutrients that causes a plankton bloom followed by a die-off - can push the local ecosystem over the edge and cause serious problems.

One of the largest sources of dissolved oxygen is oxygen transferred from the atmosphere into surface waters by the re-aerating action of wind and waves. A second major source is oxygen produced by aquatic plants (including phytoplankton) during photosynthesis. Photosynthesis requires sunlight, so it is limited by depth. In the open ocean, most photosynthetic activity occurs in the upper 80 meters (260 feet), with some activity continuing down to 600 meters (1,970 feet). In coastal areas, the depths at which photosynthesis can occur are more variable and more influenced by activities on land.

Once in the water, oxygen is consumed by marine organisms. Like land animals, fish and other marine species need oxygen for respiration. When no light is available, plants also need oxygen. Bacteria consume oxygen as they decompose dead plants and animals. Oxygen shortages occur when consumption outstrips the available oxygen resources. Oxygen levels may be reduced because the water is over-heated, as it might be near an industrial discharge or marine log storage area; warmer water simply cannot hold as much oxygen as cooler water. If water clarity decreases - that is, the water becomes turbid - due to an influx of glacial silt, organic matter, etc., less sunlight will reach the photosynthesizing plants, and they will be less able to produce oxygen.

Large amounts of organic matter in the water can not only decrease oxygen production, but also increase consumption as bacteria work on breaking down and decaying the matter. When run-off from the land or the addition of sewage effluents provides excessive amounts of nutrients such as nitrogen (in salt water near the coast) or phosphorus, a phytoplankton bloom can occur. The availability of extra nutrients allows the reproductive rate of these microalgae to zoom; the population of some species can double every twenty minutes. The phytoplankton bloom can block sunlight from reaching other types of plants. When the extra nutrients are gone, the bloom suddenly dies off, and huge amounts of oxygen are used up in its decay. A massive phytoplankton bloom can result in anoxic conditions (i.e. absence of oxygen) and can cause substantial die-offs of fish and shellfish in coastal waters.

For surface sampling, dissolved oxygen will be measured using a method called Winkler titration (named after Hungarian chemist Lajos Wilhelm Winkler). One of the immediate problems involved in measuring the concentration of oxygen dissolved in a water sample is to prevent any of the oxygen from escaping. To achieve this, two solutions are added to the sample. One contains manganous ions (Mn²⁺) and the other hydroxyl ions (OH^-). Because of its high concentration of hydroxyl ions, the second solution is described as "alkaline." Together, these ions react to form manganous hydroxide, which is fairly insoluble in water and forms a white, fluffy floculate (or floc). Immediately, the oxygen molecules in the water react with the floc to convert it from manganous hydroxide to hydroxides of various manganese ions with charges higher than ⁺2 (e.g., ⁺3, ⁺4, and ⁺7). These new hydroxides give a brownish color to the floc.

The next step is to add a strong acid to the sample to dissolve the hydroxides. As the manganese ions are freed from the floc, they react with the iodide ions (I^-) contained in the alkaline solution added earlier and form manganous ions (the same kind you started with) and iodine molecules (I²). Because of the iodine, the sample turns a yellow-brown color.

At this point, the oxygen molecules are no longer floating around in the water. Instead, they have been entirely used up in the conversion of the manganese ions. If you are sampling in messy weather or from an unstable surface, you can take the treated sample to some more convenient place to finish the procedure. Protect the sample from light and heat (sample temperature should remain between +4°C and +10°C), and finish the procedure within six hours.

A carefully measured portion of the treated sample is "titrated" with thiosulfate ions (S₂O₃^2-) - that is, sodium thiosulfate solution is added drop by drop to determine the exact amount necessary to consume all of the iodine in a reaction that produces iodide and tetrathionate ions (S₄O₆^2-). In order to make it easier to see the exact point at which all the iodine is consumed, a starch indicator is added to the titration sample. Starch turns dark blue in the presence of iodine. As the last of the iodine vanishes, so does the dark blue color.

The whole point of this procedure is that all of the oxygen molecules are consumed in the conversion of the manganese ions, but all of the manganese ions are converted back to manganous ions by the iodide ions. The net result is that two iodine molecules are produced for each of the oxygen molecules you started with. Each iodine molecule then converts two thiosulfate ions into one tetrathionate ion.

The titration procedure measures the molar volume of a sodium thiosulfate solution of known concentration needed to consume all of the iodine in a titration sample of known volume. Multiplying the molar volume of thiosulfate solution used by its concentration gives the number of thiosulfate ions that were consumed. The number of iodine molecules involved is one half of this, and the number of oxygen molecules originally dissolved in the titration sample is one half of this again. Dividing the number of oxygen molecules by the volume of the sample gives the dissolved oxygen concentration. In the procedure we're following, a syringe holding 1 milliliter of sodium thiosulfate solution and divided along its length into ten units is used to titrate a 20 milliliter water sample. The concentration of the thiosulfate solution is chosen so that every 1 milliliter used in the titration indicates a DO concentration of 10 mg/l. In other words, each unit marked on the syringe corresponds to 1 mg/l dissolved oxygen in the sample.

Nutrients

Phosphorus and nitrogen are both nutrients that occur naturally in water. They appear to be the most important nutrients in the eutrophication process and can often become detrimental by accelerating eutrophication, which is the natural aging process of a body of water such as a bay or lake.

Nutrients are also contained in stream sediments. If these are suspended they can maintain eutrophic (increased plant growth) conditions for many years. Many factors influence how much nutrient in a waterway is dissolved (soluble) and how much is attached to particles (particulate). These factors include:

• Environmental factors

• Catchment characteristics

• Management practices

Coliform Bacteria

The coliform group of bacteria live by fermenting lactose (milk sugar) and are native to the intestinal tracts of mammals and birds. Although most coliform species can also exist as free-living organisms, species of the genus Escherichia cannot. The term "fecal coliform" refers primarily to the species Escherichia coli or E. coli (and occasionally to Klebsiella species as well).

Coliform bacteria are generally pretty harmless alone. In fact, water may contain coliforms from a variety of sources besides sewage. However, the presence of high levels of coliform bacteria and, in particular, of fecal coliforms (which can't live free) suggests that sewage is being discharged into the water. Sewage discharges raise the level of nutrients in the water and can cause phytoplankton blooms. Worse, sewage contains organisms that cause disease: pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and parasites. For example, certain species of pathogenic bacteria can cause typhoid fever, dysentery, and cholera.

You might be wondering why we are looking at the relatively "harmless" fecal coliforms. It is because pathogenic bacteria are difficult to culture in the lab, and intestinal parasites and viruses can be even harder to analyze. Furthermore, if you were going to try to detect the disease-causing species directly, you would need to use a different test for each one. By contrast, fecal coliforms are relatively easy to detect and analyze. For these reasons, the fecal coliform group of bacteria is used by the Food and Drug Administration as a microbiological indicator of sewage pollution. In other words, when the FDA closes a shellfish flat, they are doing so on the basis of the fecal coliform count. The species E. coli is also used by the EPA to test the quality of fresh water for swimming. (In salt water a non-coliform type of bacteria called enterococci is used).

Traditional tests for coliforms and fecal coliforms require the inoculation of media containing lactose, incubation under carefully controlled temperatures, and examination for the presence of gas from lactose fermentation. Additional special media must then be inoculated and incubated at elevated, carefully controlled temperatures to confirm the presence of fecal coliforms (E. coli). All these require extra equipment and careful regulation of time and temperature. This approach is not only expensive and time consuming, but can be less than precise in indicating the numbers of specific organisms present.

As a result of the difficulties and lack of precision inherent in the older technology, new approaches have been developed and are being used very successfully. One of the best approaches is based on the fact that in order for coliforms to ferment lactose, they must produce certain enzymes which can be identified and used to verify the presence of the coliforms. General coliforms produce the enzyme galactosidase in lactose fermentation and fecal coliforms produce the enzyme glucoronidase in addition to galactosidase.

The "Coliscan" method used in the Keeper program takes advantage of these facts. It provides a simple, accurate and quantitative way to identify and differentiate coliforms and fecal coliforms from other bacteria. This method incorporates two special chromogenic substrates which are acted upon by the presence of the enzymes galactosidase and glucuronidase to produce pigments of contrasting colors. All that is needed to identify the presence and numbers of coliforms and fecal coliforms is to add a test sample to the medium, pour it into a petri dish and incubate it at room temperature or at a higher controlled temperature. General coliforms will produce the enzyme galactosidase and the colonies that grow in the medium will be a pink color. Fecal coliforms (E. coli) will produce both galactosidase and glucuronidase and will therefore grow as purple colonies in the medium. It is simple to count the purple colonies (E. coli) which indicate the number of fecal coliforms per sample. The pink colonies indicate the number of general coliforms per sample. The combined general coliform and fecal coliform number equals the total coliform number. Any non-colored colonies which grow in the medium are not coliforms, but may be members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Since the Coliscan contains inhibitors, most other bacterial types will not grow.

5. Surface Water Quality Monitoring Kits

Keeper has adopted the LaMotte tidal water monitoring kit, (with several adaptations) to monitor the marine, estuarine and freshwater sources in the Cook Inlet watershed. Each kit should contain the following materials:

6. Monitor Data Sheets

All data should be recorded on the standardized data sheets provided by the Monitoring Coordinator (Appendix I). Please keep an ample supply of these sheets on hand and use a fresh one for each sampling event at each site. If you are running low, call (907) 235-4068.

Data should be entered using a fine-point "Sharpie" or other indelible marker. If the data sheet is wet and the Sharpie won't write, use a #2 pencil and go over it with a Sharpie when the sheet dries. If you make a mistake, draw one line through the characters in question, enter the new characters to the immediate right of the lined-out entries, and initial the change immediately after the new characters.

It may not always be easy under field conditions, but try to write as legibly as possible, especially when entering numbers. All numeric data should be entered in the appropriate spaces, using the decimal places provided on the form. When entering temperatures, please remember to specify if they are negative. All letters and words should be printed. Record all of your observations and test results as you go along; don't rely on memory!

The first data you record on your data sheet should be the printed names of the monitors, the name and number of the station, the date, and the time. When entering the time be sure to circle either AM or PM. Next, record the latitude, longitude and elevation of your site and indicate whether you used a GPS or a topographical map to determine this information. (If you are returning to your regular monitoring site you may copy this information from previous data sheets).

Finally, do not forget to have all monitors sign the data sheet when testing is complete!

6. MONITORING PROCEDURES

his section provides a step-by-step guide to the proper field and laboratory techniques needed to successfully obtain credible water quality data.

1. Field Procedure Checklist

Below is the recommended order in which to conduct your tests. This order tends to maximize your efficiency, and should keep your sampling activities to under one hour.

• Put on safety gear (rubber gloves & eye protection).

• Collect the water sample according to the procedure described later in this section.

• Fill the black compartment of the Hanna Meter with distilled/de-ionized water. (This will need to stand for at least five minutes in order to dissolve any salts that may have accumulated on the base of the meter and presoak the electrodes).

• Place air thermometer in shaded area near sample bucket to allow it to stabilize.

• Hang water thermometer inside sample bucket.

• Perform steps 1 through 8 of the dissolved oxygen testing procedure as described later in this section. Set sample bottles aside to allow the floc to settle out.

• Fill out page one of the data sheet: monitor names, site name, site number, date, time, site location, air temperature, wind and weather conditions, water surface condition, tidal stage, observations, sketches or photos.

• Compare and record the apparent color of the sample water.

• Measure and record clarity of the sample water.

• Read the water temperature and record it on the data sheet.

• Measure and record the pH of the sample water.

• Measure the specific gravity and record the salinity of the sample water.

• Conduct Hanna Meter tests and record results.

• Complete steps 9 through 17 of the dissolved oxygen test procedures and record the results. (Steps 10 through 17 can be performed up to six hours after fixing as long as sample temperature is maintained between +4°C to +10°C).

• Measure and record Phosphate & Nitrate (freshwater only) content of water in sample bucket. (Phosphate & Nitrate tests may be performed up to six hours after sample collection as long as sample temperature is maintained between +4°C to +10°C).

• Measure 1ml, 3ml and 5ml quantities of sample water into pre-labeled coliscan sample bottles for plating when you get home. (Plating should be performed within six hours and sample temperature must be maintained between +4°C to +10°C until plating occurs).

• Check for completeness and legibility and have all team members sign the data sheet!

2. When You Get Home

• Plate coliscan samples and incubate them. Results should be taken and recorded on 24 to 48 hours after plating.

• Measure and record Phosphate & Nitrate content of sample water if this was not completed in the field.

• Titrate the dissolved oxygen samples and record the results if this was not completed in the field.

• Follow the instructions under "When You’re Done Testing" in the next section of this manual to clean and stow your equipment and take care of wastes.

• Make sure children and pets cannot get at the equipment and reagents.

• If you're running low on any reagents, or if any of them are changing in color or consistency, contact the Monitoring Coordinator at (907) 235-4068 for a fresh supply. Also contact the Monitoring Coordinator if any of your equipment has been acting oddly.

3. Field Observations

When you arrive at your sampling site, first put on your safety gear, then collect your water sample following the procedures described below. Fill the black compartment of your Hanna Meter with distilled water and set it aside. Remove the plastic sheathe from your water thermometer, (green filled Celsius thermometer) hang it inside your sample bucket and hang your air thermometer (red filled Fahrenheit thermometer) nearby. Perform the first 7 steps of the dissolved oxygen test, then begin collecting and recording data.

Air Temperature

The air thermometer should be hung somewhere where it's not leaning against any solid object and where it's protected as much as possible from direct wind and sunlight.

The thermometer will take at least five minutes to equilibrate. It might take longer if it has to adjust for large changes in temperature - for example, if you've been carrying it in a warm car on a cold day. If you've waited the five minutes but the reading looks warmer or cooler than you expected, wait another minute and see if the reading changes. Keep checking at one-minute intervals until the reading comes up the same twice in a row - it shouldn't take longer than ten minutes for this to happen. Once the thermometer has equilibrated, read the air temperature to the nearest 1°F and record it on your data sheet.

While you're waiting for the thermometer to equilibrate, you can fill in the first page of your data sheet, beginning with monitor names, site name, number and location, date and time.

Wind and Weather

In light, unsteady winds, you may have trouble judging wind direction - try tying a piece of ribbon or yarn to a pole or other upright object at your site. Record the wind direction as N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, or NW. Determine the wind speed using the Beaufort Wind Scale (Appendix H) and record the range you observe at your site in mph. Also note whether the wind is gusty, steady or variable.

Use the list of adjectives in the "Weather" box to describe overall weather conditions and estimate the inches of precipitation during the past 24 hours to the best of your ability. As previously mentioned, you can obtain a rain gauge from the Monitoring Coordinator to track rainfall or find a neighbor who is already tracking rainfall and will share the information with you. Report the type of precipitation that has fallen and record the number of consecutive days these weather conditions have persisted, including the day of sampling.

Water Surface & Tidal Conditions

Use the list of adjectives provided to describe the surface of the water at your site. A tide table for the current-year is included in your kit. Use it and the worksheet in this section to determine and plot the stage of the tide at the time of sampling. Begin by recording the district from which you are reading your tides – this is located at the top of each page of tide charts. You should choose the district closest to your site (in the case of Kachemak Bay, this will be the Seldovia District). Next, go to the back of your tide book to find and record your location within the district. Then look to the right of your location and find and record the tidal corrections as they are shown (time corrections in minutes, first for high tide, then for low followed by height corrections in feet, first high, then low). Using these corrections record the time and height of the four most recent tide cycles. From this information you can determine where you are at in the present tide cycle. Use the Guide to Tidal Stages (Appendix K) in reporting the tide stage. Once you have recorded the tidal stage, plot it on the Tidal Chart.

The data sheet also includes space to record a recent tide or bank mark description. The first time you sample at your site you should locate a stationary object (large rock, bridge piling, partially submerged tree, etc.) and use it to reference the water level. Each time you return you should make a comparative measure of the tidal stage or stream level based on this reference.

Comments & Observations

Now take a moment to exercise your senses. Look around your sampling site. Note how humans, livestock and wildlife are using the water. Look for tracks and other signs of visitors. Listen for birds and other wildlife as well as for the sounds of human activity that might affect water quality.

Be aware of any odors in the area and smell the water itself. The human nose can accurately detect a wide variety of smells, making it an effective odor-testing device. Use your hand to wave the air above your water sample toward you. If you detect an odor, use the list in Appendix L to describe it.

Record all your observations, including: abnormal color, oil slicks, foam on the water, algae blooms, unusual odors, fish kills or other dead plants or animals, sightings of live fish or other animals including humans, signs of erosion, trash or debris.

The comments and observations section should also be used to report any problems you have with sampling procedures or equipment (including the data sheet itself). Suggestions for improvement are always welcome.

Photos or Sketch Illustrating Site/Observations

Space has been provided to attach photos or make to make a sketch showing the layout of your site and the locations of what you have described in your comments and observations. Do your best to make a scale drawing of the area surrounding your site during each sampling event and mark the location of each observation you have recorded.

As previously mentioned, you should photograph your site during your first sampling. Taking photos of your site periodically there after will help to get a sense of its seasonal and other variations. Take the time to photograph your site at least four times a year so that we can create a photo journal documenting changes over time.

4. Collecting the Water Sample

A few yards away (preferably downstream or down current) from your exact sampling site, rinse the plastic bucket three times with the water to be sampled. Now go over to your site, lower the bucket gently into the water, and fill it to a level about 2 inches from the lip of the bucket. If the water at your site is more than an arm's length away, your bucket should have a rope tied to the handle. After securing the other end of the rope to something solid, fill the bucket by turning it upside down and dropping it straight down into the water. This will help avoid the futility of having the empty bucket floating all over the surface and refusing to fill. If you are working in very shallow water, do not disturb the bottom while collecting the sample.

Be careful not to artificially increase the dissolved oxygen content of the water you're sampling. This can happen if you splash the water around too much before you sample it - that's why you should rinse your bucket a few yards away from your sampling site. Once you've got the sample, handle it gently. Avoid jostling the bucket or sloshing the water around.

4. Testing Procedures

Apparent Color

1. Compare the color of the water in your sampling bucket with the BCS numbers in the Borger Color System booklet (if deciding on one BCS number is too difficult, you may use up to 2 BCS numbers to describe apparent color).
2. Record a one or two word description of the apparent color of your sample as well as the corresponding BCS number on your data sheet.
3. Rinse a Turbidity Column three times with sample water then fill it to the 50ml line and again compare and record its apparent color and corresponding BCS number.

Turbidity (Clarity)

In water deeper than 3 meters you will test for turbidity using two methods. First use a Secchi disk to test both overall water depth and water clarity or turbidity.

1. Attach the end of the Secchi disk line to a stationary object and slowly lower the disk into the water until you feel it touch bottom.
2. Note where the line breaks the surface of the water. Slowly pull the line in, and as you do so keep one hand on the spot where it broke the water’s surface.
3. The Secchi disk line is marked in red at every meter and in black at the half meter, yellow tape marks every five meters. Count the marks from the waterline to the Secchi disk and record this to the nearest ½ meter as the bottom depth on your data sheet.
4. Slowly lower the disk into the water again until it disappears from sight.
5. Carefully raise the disk until you can just make it out in the water.
6. Note where the line breaks the water’s surface. Again, pull it in and count the marks to determine and record the Secchi depth of the water to the nearest ½ meter. (If you can see the disk when it is on the bottom your bottom depth and Secchi depth are the same).

In the case of shallow water sampling stations (less than 3 meters in depth) you will use only the second method for determining turbidity.

1. Use the Turbidity Column you have previously filled to the 50 ml line with sample water for the apparent color test. Stir the sample with the glass stirring rod in order to distribute turbidity particles. Look vertically through the tube. If the black dot on the bottom of the tube is not visible when looking through the column of liquid, pour out a sufficient amount of the test sample so that the tube is filled to the 25 ml line. If you still cannot see the dot, record the turbidity as "greater than (>) 200 JTU," otherwise, go to step 2.
2. Fill the second Turbidity Column with an amount of distilled water equal to the amount of sample being measured (e.g. 50 ml or 25 ml). This is the "clear water" tube.
3. Place the tubes side-by-side, and note the difference in clarity between the two. If the black dot is equally clear in both tubes, then the turbidity of the sample water is zero. If the water in the sample tube is less clear, go to step 4.
4. Shake the Standard Turbidity Reagent bottle vigorously. Add 0.5 ml to the clear water tube. Stir contents in both tubes to again distribute turbid particles. Check the amount of turbidity by looking down through the solution at the black dot. If the turbidity of the sample remains greater than the clear water tube, continue to add Standard Turbidity Reagent in 0.5 ml increments, stirring after each addition until the turbidity in each tube appears equal. Record the total amount of Standard Turbidity Reagent added.
5. Each 0.5 ml addition to the 50 ml size is equal to 5 Jackson Turbidity Units (JTUs). If a 25 ml sample is used, each 0.5 ml addition of Standard Turbidity Reagent is equal to 10 JTUs. Use the table below to record the turbidity reading in JTU’s on your data sheet. Rinse each tube carefully after each measurement.
6. It is also important to record the temperature of the water at the time of the turbidity reading following the instructions below.

Water Temperature

1. The water thermometer should be submerged in your 2 ½ gallon sample bucket for at least 1 ½ minutes prior to measurement.
2. Locate the bucket away from direct sunlight or wind (on particularly cold days, try to minimize the time the bucket is exposed to ambient air, because the cold air temperature may skew your water temperature reading).
3. Remember to hold the thermometer on the end that is opposite the bulb! Keep the tip of the thermometer submerged (do not lift thermometer from water to read!). Read the temperature while looking at the thermometer perpendicular to the stem.
4. Record the temperature to the nearest 0.5°C.

pH

1. Rinse two (2) small test tubes with sample water three times. Fill each tube to the 5ml line with sample water.
2. While holding the dropper vertically, add ten (10) drops of indicator solution (green, Wide Range Indicator Solution) to each test tube.
3. Cap, invert and shake each tube several times to mix.
4. Remove the caps and insert each tube into the Octet Comparator (Black Box) and match sample color to appropriate color standard. HINT: Hold the comparator up so that light enters through the special light-diffusing screen in the back, but avoid viewing the comparator against direct sunlight or an irregularly lighted background.
5. Read pH measurement to the nearest 0.5 value, compare both tubes for consistency, and take the average of the two measurements and record it as the final pH measurement. If there is a significant difference between the two measurements (i.e. 1.0 pH unit difference), then make a note and repeat the test.

Salinity

1. Rinse the 650 ml clear plastic hydrometer cylinder three times by pouring small amounts of water from the sample bucket. Then, fill the hydrometer cylinder to within 2 inches of the top with water poured from the bucket.
2. Hang the water thermometer in the cylinder so that it is totally immersed, and readable through the side of the cylinder.
3. Carefully remove the hydrometer from its padded case and insert it into the cylinder, until it begins to float then give it a slight twist to remove bubbles. Take care that the hydrometer does not hit the bottom hard (it might break), and that drops of water do not splash on to the hydrometer stem above water level. Allow the hydrometer to float freely. (If the hydrometer is resting on the bottom of the cylinder you need more water.)

 



4. Wait until 3 minutes have gone by since Step 2. Read the temperature of the water in the cylinder to the nearest 0.5°C and record it on your data sheet in the space below the specific gravity reading.
5. Read the specific gravity from the scale on the hydrometer stem to the nearest 0.0005 and record it on your data sheet. Be sure to take the reading:

• Without touching the hydrometer.

• With your eyes at the same level as the water surface in the hydrometer cylinder (viewing the scale up or down at an angle can give an incorrect reading).

• At the point where the flat water surface would cross the hydrometer stem. You will notice that the water curves up slightly next to the wall of the stem (the curve is a meniscus, and it is the same effect witnessed during the dissolved oxygen test). Make sure you measure your result from the bottom of the curve, not the top.

1. Re-check the water temperature reading you recorded earlier.
2. Use the hydrometer conversion chart (Appendix J) to convert your specific gravity reading to salinity in parts per thousand. Run horizontally across the table until you find the column for the temperature at which you took the reading. Then run down the column until you get to the row for the specific gravity you recorded. If the temperature at which you read the specific gravity falls between two of those listed in the table, split the difference, always rounding to the even number.

Hanna Meter

1. Record the number written on your meter.
2. Fill the black compartment at the base of the Hanna meter with distilled water and let it stand for five (5) minutes to allow any dissolved salts on the electrodes to dissipate and to pre-soak the electrodes. (You may have completed this step earlier – if so you do not need to repeat it).
3. Carefully flush out the black base compartment three (3) times with sample water. Do not immerse the meter above the maximum level indicated by a line on the base of the meter.
4. Fill the black base compartment with sample water, let it stabilize for 15 seconds, then record the initial Temperature.
5. Press the meter's Range Switch, wait 15 seconds, then record three (3) sequential readings for Conductivity at 15 second intervals.
6. Press the Range Switch again and wait 15 seconds. Record three (3) sequential pH readings at 15 second intervals.
7. Press Range Switch once more and wait 15 seconds. Record three (3) sequential Oxidation Reduction Potential (ORP) readings at 15 second intervals
8. Press the Range Switch and wait 15 seconds. Record the final Temperature reading.
9. Calculate an average for each parameter (i.e. add all readings for each parameter and divide by the total number of readings for that parameter) and record each parameter's average on your data sheet.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

When you begin the fixing process for DO (steps 1-9) start by recording the time and the current temperature of the water in your sample bucket in case it has changed since you first recorded it. As you work through the DO testing procedure, you'll notice the emphasis to avoid trapping any air bubbles in the sample or splashing it around too much. The point is to avoid changing the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water by contact with the oxygen in the air.

To assure more precise dissolved oxygen measurement, three 60 ml samples will be prepared for titration. You will begin by titrating a 20 ml portion of each of these samples. If the results from all three titrations fall within a range of less than 0.6 mg/l you will average these results and report this as your DO average. If the difference between any two titrations is 0.6 mg/l or greater, titrate another 20 ml portion of the 60 ml sample which reads outside of the range. If the result is still different from one or both of your other samples by 6 mg/l or more then average only the two closer readings and record this number as your DO average. If no two of your three original readings fall within a 0.6 mg/l range you will have to repeat the titration process on three new 20 ml portions of each 60 ml sample. Record the results of all titrations (even those you suspect are in error) and average only those which fall within the 0.6 mg/l range.

1. Mark the labels of three 60ml sample bottles with your site number and the letters "A", "B" and "C".
2. Rinse each bottle with small amounts of water from the bucket three times. Rinse the outsides of the bottles and the caps as well.
3. Tightly cap the mouth of the bottle marked "A". Holding the bottle sideways, submerge it to mid-depth in the sample bucket, and remove the cap to allow the bottle to fill.
4. Turn the submerged bottle slowly to a vertical position (mouth up) and tap the sides with the cap to dislodge any air bubbles clinging to the inside. Replace the cap while the bottle is still submerged.
5. Retrieve the bottle and examine it carefully to make sure that no air bubbles are trapped inside. Once a satisfactory (i.e. bubbleless) sample has been collected, repeat Steps 2 through 4 with bottles "B" and "C".
6. Uncap all three samples. Add 8 drops of manganous sulfate solution (pink reagent) to each sample.
7. Add 8 drops of alkaline potassium iodide azide (clear reagent) to each sample. Be sure to add the manganous sulfate first. Drop the solutions in gently to avoid splashing and mixing in air. Hold the reagent bottles vertically, and do not allow the dropper tips to touch the sample.
8. Cap each sample bottle carefully and mix by repeatedly tipping capped bottle back and forth in a gentle rocking motion for fifteen seconds. A fluffy, white to brownish precipitate will